Franz 
Experimental  Psychopathology 


The  Library 
University  of  California,  Los  Angeles 


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AT 

LOS  ANGELES 

LIBRARY 

[Reprinted  from  the  Psychological  Bulletin,  April,  191 2,  Vol.  IX,  No.  4.] 


EXPERIMENTAL  PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 

BY  PROFESSOR  SHEPHERD  IVORY  FRANZ    i 

Government  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Much  has  been  written  during  the  past  few  years  concerning  the 
mutual  relations  of  psychology  and  medical  science.  The  establish- 
ment of  laboratories  of  psychology  in  hospitals  for  the  insane,  in 
institutions  for  the  feeble-minded,  and  in  universities  for  the  examina- 
tion of  abnormal  children  has  resulted  in  a  wider  and  more  general 
appreciation  of  the  possible  advantages  which  may  accrue  to  both 
psychology  and  medicine  by  the  combination.  This  interest  has 
been  shown  to  some  extent  by  various  attempts  to  give  names  to 
each  new  application  or  junction  of  psychology  with  one  of  the  medical 
disciplines,  and  at  present  we  have  to  deal  with  abnormal  psychology, 
psychopathology,  pathopsychology  and  clinical  psychology.  Many 
other  divisions  are  made,  and  the  extremes  to  which  this  attempted 
division  may  go  is  well  illustrated  in  Wallin's  article  (14),  where  we 
find  the  terms  "clinical  psychology,"  "psycho-clinical,"  "medical 
psychology,"  and  "medico-clinical"  as  well  as  psychopathology.  In 
many  instances  the  reader  is  left  to  judge  whether  or  not  each  term  is 
to  designate  something  different  from  the  others. 

A  practical  distinction  which  may  be  made  and  held  to  is  that 
when  an  investigator  is  concerned  chiefly  with  the  general  course  of  a 


124M 


146  SHEPHERD  IVORY  ERANZ 

disease  and  its  treatment  his  interests  are  in  psychiatry,  but  when  his 
chief  concern  is  the  investigation  of  the  development  or  interrelations 
of  mental  symptoms  his  interests  arc  in  psychology,  and  the  emphasis, 
either  on  the  psychological  or  the  pathological  aspect,  makes  his  work 
either  pathopsychological  or  psychopathological.  This  distinction  is 
well  brought  out  in  the  work  of  Gregor  (5).  In  this  book  Gregor, 
like  his  predecessor  Storring,  gives  a  general  account  of  the  mental 
processes  in  a  variety  of  diseases.  Although  it  can  not  be  said  to  be 
a  complete  exposition  of  all  forms  of  abnormal  mental  conditions,  the 
book  gives  a  better  view  of  the  present  status  of  psychopathology 
than  any  other  single  work.  Here  one  may  find  a  summary  of  many 
of  the  experimental  results  in  psychopathology  which  are  scattered 
throughout  psychiatric  and  psychological  journals,  but  there  is  a 
Germanic  exclusiveness  which  slightly  mars  the  work  as  a  whole. 
Many  of  the  chapters  dealing  with  psychopathology  have  companion 
chapters  dealing  with  the  normal  psychology  of  the  processes  under 
consideration  which  serve  to  bridge  the  gap  between  normal  psy- 
chology and  psychopathology  and  also  to  introduce  the  physician 
to  general  and  experimental  psychology.  The  material  included  in 
the  book  is  mostly  two  or  more  years  old,  so  that  our  review  precludes 
the  possibility  of  much  more  than  mention  of  the  titles  of  the  chapters, 
which  are  as  follows:  psychology  and  psychiatry;  psychopathology 
of  time  sense;  reaction  experiments;  pathology  of  apprehension; 
association  reactions;  association  experiments  with  the  insanef 
methods  of  testing  memory;  pathology  of  memory;  psychology  o; 
evidence;  experiments  on  the  psychology  of  evidence  of  the  insane; 
psychology  and  pathology  of  attention;  methods  of  testing  atten- 
tion; experimental  testing  of  movement;  bodily  changes  accom- 
panying mental  states;  mental  work;  methods  of  testing  general 
intelligence. 

A  notable  omission  is  that  of  the  sensory  equipment  of  the  insane, 
but  this  defect  is  not  due  solely  to  the  author  but  to  the  great  body 
of  those  who  investigate  the  abnormal.  It  is  strange  that  although 
psychologists  have  devoted  much  time  to  the  investigation  of  sensa- 
tion, little  or  no  work  of  this  character  has  been  published  regarding 
the  sensory  equipment  of  the  abnormal.  Psychiatrists  have  dealt 
with  conduct  (or  movement,  if  you  will)  to  the  exclusion  of  sensation 
except  in  as  far  as  the  latter  topic  bears  directly  upon  hallucinations 
and  illusions.  They  criticize  the  psychologists  for  their  analytic 
sensation  work  and  demand  the  investigation  of  "conduct,"  showing 
thereby  a  lack  of  appreciation  of  the  fact  that  "conduct"  is  a  complex 
depending,  in  part  at  least,  upon  sensations. 


EXPERIMENTAL  PSYCHOPATHOLOGY  147 

In  some  respects  the  book  of  Whipple  is  an  equally  notable  con- 
tribution to  general  psychopathology  (15).  Here  psychiatrists  may 
find  details  of  more  exact  methods  of  testing  patients  than  have 
usually  been  employed  by  them,  but  which  for  them  have  hitherto 
not  been  available  in  simple  form,  or  which  have  been  grouped  in 
college  text-books  or  scattered  through  many  psychological  journals. 
The  partial  limitation  of  the  object  of  the  book  to  the  study  of  children 
prevents  a  full  consideration  of  it  from  a  psychiatric  (i.  <?.,  psycho- 
pathological)  point  of  view,  but  many  of  the  methods  should  prove 
useful  to  those  who  wish  to  examine  the  mental  states  of  the  insane  in 
ways  more  exact  than  those  usually  employed.  From  personal  expe- 
rience, the  writer  is  inclined  to  doubt  the  psychiatric  (i.  e.,  the  psycho- 
pathological)  value  of  some  of  the  methods  advocated,  and  certain 
matters  have  not  been  taken  up  which  have  great  value  for  the 
psychologically  inclined  psychiatrist.  Many  of  the  methods  can  be 
used  with  the  insane  only  as  research  methods,  others  are  very  simple 
and  of  great  practical  value  but  are  parts  of  the  general  equipment 
of  those  who  have  to  deal  with  the  insane,  e.  g.,  tests  for  heterophoria 
et  al.  Because  the  general  character  of  the  tests  which  are  recom- 
mended is  simple,  Whipple's  book  is  much  more  useful  to  those  who 
deal  with  the  insane  than  most  other  works  dealing  with  experimental 
method,  and  in  this  connection  mention  may  be  made  of  the  report 
of  the  special  committee  of  the  American  Psychological  Association 
on  the  standardization  of  experimental  procedure  in  tests  (12).  The 
committee  apparently  had  in  view  the  application  of  the  methods 
they  advocate  solely  to  the  normal.  Few  of  the  methods  recom- 
mended are  useful  in  the  examination  of  the  insane,  and  it  is  to  be 
regretted  that  the  part  of  the  committee  which  has  already  reported 
has  apparently  neglected  to  deal  with  certain  practical  relations  of 
psychology  and  has  restricted  its  report  largely  to  the  consideration 
of  the  testing  of  normal  individuals.  Two  of  the  topics  discussed 
in  the  report  may,  it  is  true,  have  only  a  limited  bearing  upon  prob- 
lems of  psychopathology,  but  that  of  mental  imagery  may  be  impor- 
tant in  the  consideration  of  the  types  of  reaction,  of  hallucinations, 
or  delusions,  etc.,  of  the  abnormal. 

Although,  as  indicated  above,  experimental  psychologists  have 
devoted  a  large  part  of  their  time  to  the  investigation  of  sensations, 
Gregor's  work  passes  over  sensation  disturbances,  and  Whipple's 
book  fails  to  give  indications  of  methods  of  testing  some  of  the  sensa- 
tions which  at  times  are  much  altered  in  the  insane  and  other  abnormal 
classes.     Thus,  we  find  no  discussion  of  methods  of  testing  taste, 


i-|S  SHEPHERD  IVORY  FRANZ 

smell,  temperature  and  the  threshold  of  touch.     It  may  also  be  noted 
that  in  general  Whipple's  tests  of  movement  are  directed  towards  the 
testing  of  motor  equipment  as  such,  rather  than  to  the  sensations  of 
movement,  which  are  also  often  disturbed  in  pathological  conditions, 
not  only  in  the  insane  but  also  in  the  feeble-minded.     Recent  personal 
work,  not  yet  published,   indicates  that  the  sensory  equipment  of 
the  insane  and  of  other  abnormal  classes  must  be  investigated  as  of 
equal  importance  to  the  motor  or  conduct  sphere,  and  that  there 
are  as  many  sensory  disturbances  or  deviations  in  the  abnormal  as 
there    are   motor   or   conduct   disturbances.     It   is    surprising   that 
psychiatrists    and    psychopathologists    have    not    investigated    the 
sensory  equipment  of  their  patients,  but  part  of  their  failure  to  do 
so  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  they  have  been  unable  to  obtain 
from  the  normal  psychologists  data  suitable  to  compare  with  their 
own.      It    is    largely   because  of   the  necessity  of   having  data  on 
untrained   subjects  that  some   psychopathologists   have  been  com- 
pelled   to  devote  a    large    part    of    their    time    to    experiments  on 
normal,  but  psychologically  untrained,  subjects  so  that  a  direct  com- 
parison with  similar  results  on  abnormal,  but  equally  psychologically, 
untrained  subjects  may  be  made.     This  is  what  the  writer  has  been 
compelled  to  do  in  his  work  on  the  sensations  mediated  through  the 
skin  and  the  underlying  tissues  (3),  for  he  has  found  no  available  data 
for  purposes  of  comparison.     The  methods  can  usually  not  be  as 
fine  as  those  used  in  a  purely  psychological  research,  in  other  words 
they  must  be  clinical.     The  results  from  this  work  may  be  little 
different  from  those  on   trained   subjects  with  finer  methods,   and 
perhaps  no  great  amount  of  material  for  theoretical  psychology  may 
accrue  from  the  work,  but  it  is  needed  for  purposes  of  comparison 
as  practical  psychological  standards.     If  we  are  to  have  much  advance 
in  our  understanding  of  the  abnormal  and  any  advance  in  the  under- 
standing of  the  normal  from  the  study  of  the  abnormal,  many  tests 
must  be  devised  and  applied  to  a  number  of  normal,  but  untrained, 
subjects  and  the  same  tests  applied  to  the  numerous  abnormal  classes. 
For  example,  the  usual  procedures  of  reaction  time  experiments  can 
be    applied    to    only    a    very    small    percentage    of    the    abnormal. 
Sommer's  tridimensional  analyzer  can  be  used  with  normal  subjects 
but  can  not  be  used  with  many  abnormal.    Much  simpler  instruments 
and  methods  may  be  devised  to  make  tests  of  a  similar  character 
and  have  wide  applicability  and  give  valuable  results. 

Largely  on  account  of  the  value  association  tests  have  for  diag- 
nosis, the  number  of  researches  on  the  association  of  ideas  in  the 


EXPERIMENTAL  PSYCHOPJTHOLOGY  H9 

insane  is  more  than  on  any  other  topic.  Some  of  the  more  important 
of  these  are  worthy  of  even  more  extended  consideration  than  can  be 
given  in  this  review.  Of  the  greatest  value  is  that  of  Kent  and 
Rosanoff  (7).  These  investigators  obtained  100  free  associations  from 
each  of  1,000  normal  subjects  and  have  carefully  tabulated  the  results 
according  to  their  frequency  values,  so  that  the  results  of  any  ab- 
normal subject  may  be  directly  compared  with  those  of  the  1,000 
normal  subjects.  The  grouping  of  the  normal  reactions  resulted  in 
the  formulation  of  a  table,  or  tables,  of  actual  facts  without  the  ex- 
tended consideration  of  the  logical  characters  of  the  reactions,  as  has 
been  done  by  many  previous  investigators.  Since  this  review  is  con- 
cerned mainly  with  pathological  advances  and  methods,  we  must 
pass  over  the  normal  results  and  consider  only  the  results  on  the  250 
insane  patients.  The  results  on  108  cases  of  dementia  prsecox  showed 
a  larger  number  of  "individual"  reactions  than  the  normal  or  than 
any  other  form  of  insanity  studied;  of  33  cases  of  paranoic  conditions, 
a  heterogeneous  group,  many  showed  no  departure  from  the  normal, 
and  only  a  few  cases  closely  allied  to  the  dementia  praecox  group  gave 
evidence  of  great  abnormality;  24  cases  of  epilepsy  showed  many 
repetitions  and  many  particles  of  speech  as  association  reactions,  and 
it  is  worthy  of  note  that  these  cases  were  mostly  in  a  state  of  advanced 
dementia;  32  cases  of  paresis  gave  varying  reactions,  those  "pre- 
senting no  considerable  dementia  or  confusion  and  cases  in  a  state  of 
remission"  gave  practically  normal  reactions,  and  those  showing 
mental  deterioration  showed  many  repetitions,  associations  to  pre- 
vious reactions,  etc.;  32  cases  of  manic-depressive  insanity  showed 
slight  variations  from  the  normal,  although  there  was  a  number  of 
"sound  reactions,  word  complements,  and  particles";  in  8  cases  of 
involutional  melancholia  no  evident  abnormality  was  observed;  6 
cases  of  alcoholic  dementia  showed  no  evidence  of  abnormality;  and 
only  one  of  the  4  cases  of  senile  dementia  showed  more  than  the  usual 
number  of  individual  reactions. 

In  this  connection  the  works  of  Klepper  (9),  of  Kilian  (8)  and  of 
Nathan  (10)  deserve  mention.  Klepper  investigated  the  associations 
of  epileptics  and  katatonics,  which  types  of  cases  sometimes  have  a 
somewhat  similar  symptomatology  and  which  are,  therefore,  difficult 
to  differentiate.  The  characters  of  the  associations  differ  in  the  two 
types  which  were  investigated.  Without  going  into  the  enumeration 
of  the  logical  differences  in  the  types  of  reactions  it  is  evident  that 
there  are  sufficiently  well  marked  differences,  and  these  are  so  greal 
that  the  author  concludes  thai  he  is  able  to  differentiate  one  type 


150  SHEPHERD  IVORY  FRANZ 

from  the  other  by  the  association  tests  alone,  without  having  any 
history  or  case  record.  kilian  tested  the  associations  of  a  case  of 
manic-depressive  insanity  over  a  period  of  five  months,  during  which 
there  was  a  return  to  the  normal  condition.  He  found  a  gradual 
decrease  in  the  number  of  klang  and  non-understandable  reactions,  a 
decrease  in  a  number  of  perseverations  of  the  associations,  but  there 
was  a  greater  tendency  to  repetition  of  the  stimulus  words.  Nathan 
worked  on  a  case  of  imbecility,  investigating  principally  the  so-called 
senseless  reactions,  and  found  that  many  of  these  are  due  to  sense 
impressions  obtained  or  received  immediately  before  or  during  the 
course  of  the  experiments,  others  were  due  to  ideas  present  in  the  mind 
of  the  subject,  which  were  more  or  less  stable  and  apparently  personal, 
and  some  others  were  reactions  to  stimulus  words  given  in  previous 
tests.  This  study  is  of  great  psychological  interest  on  account  of  its 
analysis  of  the  senseless  reactions,  for  these  are  more  frequent  than 
is  commonly  believed,  and,  as  the  writer  has  pointed  out  in  another 
place,  they  can  not  be  considered  to  be  senseless  for  the  subject,  but 
senseless  only  as  far  as  the  logical  beliefs  of  the  experimenter  are 
concerned. 

The  attempts  to  explain  some  symptoms  in  abnormal  cases  by 
tests  of  the  effects  of  drugs,  a  method  with  which  the  name  of  Kraepe- 
lin  is  closely  associated,  have  been  continued  in  the  Munich  clinic. 
The  work  of  Schnidtmann  (13)  is  an  account  of  an  effort  to  discover 
the  reason  for  certain  prolonged  association  reactions  in  certain 
pathological  cases.  Seven  subjects  were  given  from  40  to  50  c.c.  of 
alcohol,  and  their  associations  tested  before  and  after  its  ingestion. 
One  of  the  subjects  gave  shortened  times  after  the  taking  of  the 
alcohol,  and  the  other  six  gave  normal  or  lengthened  times.  The 
quality  of  the  associations  differed  in  the  individual  cases,  but  these 
are  impossible  to  summarize  in  a  few  words.  Another  series  of  tests 
to  determine  the  effects  of  alcohol  had  its  origin  in  the  Munich 
laboratory.  Goring  (4)  tested  the  effect  of  similar  doses  of  alcohol 
on  muscular  force,  apprehension,  and  the  ability  to  add  in  18  cases 
(11  men  and  7  women).  Preliminary  series  of  tests  were  made  and 
the  testing  series  were  begun  20  minutes  after  the  ingestion  of  the 
alcohol.  The  tests  of  muscular  force  were  the  last  of  the  series  and 
these  were  usually  begun  42  minutes  after  the  taking  of  the  dose  of 
alcohol.  All  subjects  showed  less  ability  to  apprehend  after  the 
taking  of  the  alcohol,  for  there  were  more  mistakes;  some  were  un- 
able to  add  as  many  figures,  although  there  were  marked  deviations 
both  up  and  down;  and  the  muscular  force  varied,  sometimes  being 


EXPERIMENTAL  PSYCHOPATHOLOGY  15  * 

greater  and  sometimes  less  after  the  alcohol.  The  seven  women  were 
given  different  amounts  of  alchool,  and  it  is  not  possible  to  make  a 
full  comparison  with  the  men,  but  in  general  it  may  be  concluded  that 
the  women  showed  more  effects  from  their  doses  than  did  the  men, 
and  the  author  believes  they  are  less  resistant,  probably  being  less 
accustomed  to  the  drug.  In  neither  of  these  two  experiments  (Goring 
and  Schnidtmann),  although  valuable  in  themselves,  can  it  be  said 
that  all  the  precautions  were  taken  that  should  be  taken.  Rivers 
has  shown  that  alcohol  when  taken  and  not  recognized  does  not  have 
the  marked  effect  that  Kraepelin  and  his  pupils  attribute  to  it,  and 
the  excellent  method  of  Rivers,  or  a  similar  one  which  would  give  as 
good  control,  should  have  been  used  in  these  experiments  if  the  results 
are  to  be  accepted  as  they  stand.  No  account  of  Rivers'  work  has 
been  taken,  or  at  least  the  later  work  of  Rivers  is  not  mentioned,  and 
since  we  know  from  that  work  how  great  an  influence  upon  the  re- 
actions "knowledge"  may  have,  we  are  not  justified  at  present  in 
concluding  that  the  results  of  the  work  of  Schnidtmann  and  Goring 
are  more  than  suggestive. 

The  application  of  psychological  methods  to  the  investigation  of 
therapeutic  procedure  has  been  made  in  the  work  of  Busch  and 
Plaut  (2),  who  investigated  the  effect  of  continuous  warm  baths  upon 
pulse  rate,  on  temperature,  on  blood-pressure,  on  muscular  force, 
on  associations,  on  choice  reaction  time,  on  apprehension,  and  on 
addition  ability.'  Baths  of  two  hours'  duration  were  taken  and  the 
effects  of  these  were  investigated  in  relation  to  the  above  mentioned 
processes  in  3  normal  subjects  and  2  hypomaniacal  subjects.  In 
general  there  was  a  slight  increase  in  temperature,  no  noticeable 
change  in  the  pulse  rate,  and  a  slight  decrease  in  the  blood  pressure. 
The  results  with  the  ergograph  (muscular  force  experiments)  were 
varied,  sometimes  a  greater  force  than  normal  was  obtained,  and 
sometimes  the  force  was  less  than  normal.  The  choice  reaction  time 
was  varied  but  little,  if  at  all;  the  accuracy  of  apprehension  was 
increased  about  2  per  cent,  after  the  bath;  the  ability  to  add  was 
also  slightly  increased;  the  character  of  the  associations  is  difficult 
to  estimate  and  to  summarize.  All  the  results  are  within  the  normal 
variation,  and  since  this  is  so,  the  effects  of  prolonged  baths  on  normal 
and  slightly  abnormal  individuals  may  be  judged  to  be  insignificant. 
That  such  therapeutic  measures  have  a  quieting  effect  upon  certain 
excited  cases  there  can  be  no  doubt,  and  the-  present  work  is  of  value 
in  that  it  fives  a  basis  for  comparison  with  the  more  disturbed  of  the 
psychiatric  cases. 


1 5  -  SHEPHERD  I  FOR  Y  FRANZ 

The  results  of  Ranschburg's  study  of  memory  (n)  are  of  im- 
portance for  normal  and  pathological  psychology.  The  method  used 
in  the  work  is  that  of  word  pairs,  the  subject  being  given  pairs  of 
words  in  a  series,  and  after  the  series  is  completed  is  given  the  first 
word  of  each  pair  and  asked  to  supply  the  second  word.  Five  series 
were  made  with  6,  6,  9,  9,  and  9  pairs  respectively.  There  were 
calculated  the  percentages  of  words  retained  immediately,  the  time 
of  reproduction,  the  percentages  of  words  retained  after  24  hours, 
and  the  characters  of  the  mistakes.  Normal  children  reproduced 
correctly  from  75  to  100  per  cent,  immediately  and  about  80  per  cent, 
after  24  hours.  The  average  time  for  the  reproduction  was  2  sec. 
for  children  from  6  to  12  years  of  age,  and  1.2  sec.  for  those  between 
12  and  19.  There  was  only  about  25  per  cent,  correct  immediate 
reproduction  in  the  feeble-minded  from  6  to  12  years,  and  only  60 
per  cent,  for  those  between  the  ages  of  12  and  19;  there  was  a  much 
greater  deviation  from  the  normal  after  24  hours.  The  time  for 
reproduction  was  from  1  to  10  sec.  The  general  paralytics  were  poor 
memorizers;  only  2  reproduced  correctly  as  much  as  75  per  cent, 
immediately,  and  19  of  the  total  number  averaged  only  7  per  cent. 
Fifteen  neurasthenics  showed  normal  memory.  Although  Ranschburg 
uses  his  results  as  indicators  for  diagnosis  and  prognosis,  this  is  suc- 
cessful only  in  certain  specially  selected  cases  and  in  groups,  but  not 
for  each  individual  case  in  any  special  type  of  psychosis. 

Many  tests  for  the  estimation  of  the  general  intelligence  of  abnor- 
mal subjects  have  been  devised,  and  Becker  (1)  discusses  some  of  these 
in  relation  to  paranoia  and  to  dementia  prsecox.  The  method  used 
by  him  was  a  series  of  questions  which  called  forth  observations  or 
statements  from  the  patients.  Following  are  two  examples  of  the 
type  of  questions  which  he  used:  (1)  "Which  is  heavier,  a  pound  of 
lead  or  a  pound  of  feathers?"  (2)  "Herodotus  says:  A  lioness 
can  bear  only  one  young,  because  at  its  birth  the  cub  destroys  the 
womb  of  the  lioness.  Why  is  this  statement  false?"  Results  of 
these  tests  can  be  interpreted  only  in  an  indirect  fashion,  and  at 
times  no  interpretation  is  possible.  Much  depends  upon  the  pre- 
vious education  and  training  of  the  individual  subject  and  much 
more  upon  his  cooperation  in  the  test.  At  the  same  time  such  tests 
can  be  used  only  for  large  groups  if  they  are  intended  to  have  any 
diagnostic  value. 

Numerous  insane  patients  show  no  reaction  to  stimuli,  and  casual 
observation  would  tend  to  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  stimuli 
were  not  apprehended.     Some  of  these  cases  return  to  a  more  normal 


EXPERIMENTAL  PSYCHOPATHOLOGY  153 

condition  and  can  recount  much  that  occurred  during  the  period 
when  they  did  not  respond.  The  stimuli  were  apprehended,  but 
the  reactions  were  inhibited.  That  these  patients  may  appreciate 
stimuli  has  been  shown  by  the  galvanic  reactions  obtained  from  some 
of  them  by  Wells  and  Forbes  (16).  One  of  their  cases  of  catatonic 
stupor  "  showed  no  evidence  whatever  of  consciousness,"  but  reacted 
galvanically  to  all  forms  of  stimuli  which  were  applied.  One  case 
of  senile  dementia  showed  no  marked  deflections,  which  would  indi- 
cate that  the  stimuli  had  been  appreciated. 

Miss  Kent's  work  on  the  formation  of  simple  habits  in  cases  of  Jfc 
dementia  precox  (6)  is  of  great  interest  for  it  gives  a  scientific  basis 
for  the  work  of  training  of  these  cases  which  has  been  lacking.  It  is 
well  known  that  many  of  these  patients  may  be  made  very  useful 
about  an  institution,  but  there  are  large  numbers  which  are  not  trained 
because  it  appears  on  the  surface  that  it  would  take  too  long  a  time  to 
get  them  to  acquire  proper  habits  of  work.  The  results  of  this  work, 
however,  show  that  it  is  a  comparatively  easy  matter  to  get  almost  any 
case  of  dementia  praecox  trained  to  perform  simple  series  of  movements 
which  are  useful.  Some  of  these  patients  who  are  normally  (sic) 
destructive  and  filthy  may  be  taught  such  movements  that  the  old 
destructiveness  and  filthy  habits  are  replaced.  One  of  the  most 
important  variables  in  the  work  was  the  cooperation  of  the  subjects, 
but  the  tests  which  were  used  were  of  such  a  character  that  they 
were  not  directly  appealing  to  the  subjects  and  they  could  not  be 
taken  as  the  best  possible  conditions  for  the  production  of  coopera- 
tion. In  general  the  curves  of  training  resemble  those  of  animals 
and  the  method  used  by  the  subjects  were  mostly  those  of  trial  and 
error,  although  in  certain  cases  the  methods  were  unlike  those  of 
animals  and  those  of  normal  subjects.  Continuation  of  this  work, 
especially  in  regard  to  the  factors  influencing  the  method  of  work,  are 
urgently  needed,  both  for  psychopathology  and  for  its  applications  in 
psychiatry.  Here  should  come  tests  of  the  effects  of  punishments, 
and  of  rewards. 

References 
i.  Becker,  W.  H.     Zu  den  Methoden  der  Intelligcnzpriifung.     Klinik  f.  psychischt 
u.  nervose  Krankh.,  1910,  5,  I— 12. 

2.  Busch,  A.,  and  Plaut,  F.     Ueber  die  Einwirkung  verlangcrtcr  warmer  Biider  auf 

einige  korperliche  und  gcistige  Funktionen.     Psychol.  Arbeiten,  1910,  5,  505- 
527. 

3.  Franz,  S.  I.     Touch  Sensations  in  Different  Bodily  Segments.     Govt.  Hosp.  for 

the  Insane,  Bull.  No.  2,  1910,  60-72. 

4.  Coking,   H.     Vergleichcnde   Messung  der   Alkoholwirkung.     Psychol.   Arbeiten, 

191 1,  6,  261-299. 


i  5-1  SHEPHERD  IVORY  FRANZ 

5.  Gregor,  A.     Leitfaden  der  experimentellen  Psychopathologie.     Berlin:  S.  Karger, 

1910.  Pp.  222. 

6.  Kent,  G.  H.     Experiments  on  Habit  Formation  in  Dementia  Prsecox.     Psychol. 

Rev.,  191 1,  18,  275-410. 

7.  Kent,  G.  H.,  and  Rosanoff,  A.  J.     A  Study  of  Association  in  Insanity.     Amer. 

Jour,  of  Insan.,  1910,  67,  37-96;  317-39°- 

8.  Kii.ian,  K.     Zur  Untersuchung  der  Assoziationen  bei  Maniakalischen.     Klinik 

f.  psychische  u.  nervose  Krankh.,  191 1,  6,  28-82. 

9.  Klepper,  G.     Die  Unterscheidung  von  epileptischen  und  katatonischen  Zustan- 

den,  speziell  aus  den  Assoziationen.     Klinik  f.  psychische  u.  nervose  Krankh. y 

1911,  6,  1-27. 

10.  Nathan,  E.  W.     Ueber  die  sogenannten  sinnlosen  Reaktionen  beim  Assoziations- 

versuch.     Klinik  }.  psychische  u.  nervose  Krankh.,  1910,  5,  76-82. 

11.  Ranschburg,   P.     Ueber   Art   und   Wert   klinischer   Gedachtnismessungen   bei 

nervosen  und  psychischen  Krankheiten.  III.  Die  diagnostische  und  prognostische 
Verwertbarkeit  von  Gedachtnismessungen.  Klinik  f.  psychische  u.  nervose 
Krankh.,  1910,  5,  89-194. 

12.  Pillsbury,  W.  B.,  Seashore,  C.  E.,  and  Angell,  J.  R.     Report  of  the  Committee 

of  the  American  Psychological  Association  on  the  Standardization  of  Procedure 
in  Experimental  Tests.     Psychol.  Rev.  Monog.,  No.  53.     Pp.  108. 

13.  Schnidtmann,  M.     Der  Einfluss  des  Alkohols  auf  den  Ablauf  der  Vorstellung. 

Psychol.  Arbeiten,  191 1,  6,  300-338. 

14.  Wallin,  J.  E.  W.     The  New  Clinical  Psychology  and  the  Psychoclinicist.     Jour, 

of  Educ.  Psychol.,  1911,  2,  121-132;  191-210. 

15.  Whipple,  G.  M.     Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests.     Baltimore:  Warwick  and 

York,  1910.     Pp.  534. 

16.  Wells,  F.  L.,  and  Forbes,  A.     On  Certain  Electrical  Processes  in  the  Human  Body 

and  their  Relation  to  Emotional  Reactions.  (Archives  of  Psychol.,  No.  16.) 
New  York:  The  Science  Press,  1911.     Pp.  39. 


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